a.k.a Antifaust Halloween Edition

I was looking for a Halloween-related topic to write about when I saw “How Zombies Work” among the popular links in del.icio.us. Reading the article led me to think about supernatural creatures and the medical theories surrounding them. (Initially, I sought out to write about zombies, vampires and poltergeists, but in the case of the latter I found myself straying towards the realm of parapsychology. I had to leave that one out.)

Zombies

Our knowledge of these reanimated corpses has undoubtedly been influenced by the works of George A. Romero and his ilk, but zombies were said to have originated from Haitian folklore. The most celebrated case of zombification is that of Clairvius Narcisse, a Haitian man who was documented to have died in a hospital only to reappear years later in one of the villages. In his investigation of “Haitian zombie powder,” botanist Wade Davis speculated that among the active ingredients was tetrodotoxin (puffer fish toxin). He theorized that since tetrodotoxin causes paralysis, it was easy for other people to mistake the victim for dead. The perpetrator could simply visit the grave of his victim long after others have left, extract his “zombie” and force it to do his bidding. It is also theorized that the zombie powder concoction contained hallucinogens and substances that induce amnesia.
Davis has been accused by many circles of using unscientific methodology and of omitting data when they do not conform to his theory. Issues of ethics and methodology aside, I also find it hard to believe that dosages of tetrodotoxin high enough to cause whole body paralysis can fail to bring about acute respiratory failure.
It is likely that anecdotal accounts of zombification are the result of the propagation of urban legends and of failure to recognize schizophrenia, especially paranoid schizophrenia.

Vampires

Almost every culture has a version of the blood-sucking creature-of-the-night, but the vampire of nineteenth century literature — of which Stoker’s Dracula is an archetype — belongs to the European tradition. Although it definitely made no scientific claims, it was Stoker’s classic epistolary novel that introduced the concept of vampirism as a “disease,” as something that can be passed on from one person to the next. Despite the doubtfulness of apocryphal accounts of “true vampirism,” scientific speculation about the origins of vampire folklore emerged. Do real vampires exist? Is there a medical explanation for vampirism?

One of the more popular theories regarding the etiology of vampirism involves a group of diseases known as the porphyrias. This particular theory was posed by a biochemist named David Dolphin in 1985. The porphyrias result from deficiencies in the enzymes responsible for the synthesis of heme, which is part of hemoglobin and other important proteins. These enzyme deficiencies affect the skin and nervous system, thus individuals with porphyria present with neuropsychiatric and/or cutaneous abnormalities. When exposed to sunlight, the skin of porphyria victims may develop rashes, blisters or swelling. See where this is going? Here are Dolphin’s arguments:

• The adverse cutaneous reaction to sunlight forced porphyria sufferers to avoid going out in the daylight.
• Some forms of porphyria cause severe disfigurement. At times, the lips and gums are so taut that teeth project out like fangs.
• Since porphyria can be treated with intravenous agents stimulating the production of red blood cells, porphyria victims may have thought that ingesting blood will alleviate the symptoms.
• Ingestion of garlic allegedly leads to exacerbations of porphyria symptoms.

Interesting theory. But hey, even crap can be interesting. Dolphin’s arguments have been discredited. Here are the counter-arguments:

• Not all vampires in Europian lore were said to have avoided sunlight. In fact, even Stoker’s Dracula was not depicted as having any fear of sunlight, suffering no adverse effects save for a limitation of his powers.
• Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes severe disfigurement. But folklore does not describe vampires as being disfigured.
• Dolphin really stretched his imagination in stating that some porphyria sufferers drank blood to treat the disease. The pathophysiology of the disease has only been discovered recently, so the connection between blood and porphyria symptoms could not have been common knowledge back then. Porphyria victims do not crave blood. Furthermore, drinking blood does not alleviate porphyria symptoms. Blood components are broken down by the digestive system so that they are absorbed in forms no longer useful to the victim.
• No proof exists that garlic worsens porphyria.

A cursory search through the medical literature will tell you that vampirism — that is, the practice of ingesting human blood — is more closely related to schizophrenia than any other medical disorder.

Sources:
How Zombies Work
The Straight Dope: Did vampires suffer from the disease porphyria or not?

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